Electric Mountain Bikes

By the existing federal definition, e-bikes are two or three-wheeled cycles with fully operable pedals and an electric motor assist of no more than 750 watts (also known as 1 horsepower). For those familiar with wattage, that figure is a bit misleading, as it is maximum power output – almost all modern eMTBs have a nominal power output of 250 watts.

There are 3 primary classes of eMTBs: Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3.  Class 1 pedal-assist bikes have an electric assist that ceases to provide assistance when the bicycle reaches the speed of 20 miles per hour, and the electric motor works only when the rider is pedaling (referred to as “pedal-assist”). Class 2 e-bikes are also limited to a top assisted speed of 20 miles per hour but include both pedal-assist and a throttle that can be used without pedaling.. Class 3 e-bikes have an electric assist limited to 28 miles per hour and are also pedal-assist.

When we refer to eMTBs, we typically are talking about Class 1, pedal-assist mountain bikes and *not* throttled bicycles of any kind. Most eMTBs presently produced by major bicycle companies in the US are Class 1, though increasingly companies are producing motors that exceed 750W in peak power and should no longer be considered Class 1, 2, or 3 pedal-assist bikes. However, the ‘maximum power’ definition is sufficiently vague that some companies have argued it refers to maximum continuous power – what a motor can produce without overheating – and that peak power outputs for up to 30 seconds are permitted. VMBA is working with other mountain bike advocacy organizations to clarify the law and definitions.

Here’s where it gets tricky. The rules regulating which eMTBs may be used where are not consistent, and vary even within federal land owners. State and local municipalities may have unique restrictions, and private landowners have final say as to what types of eMTBs – if any – are permitted on their land. In terms of the national-level rules:

• The Department of the Interior – which includes the Bureau of Land Management, National Parks system, and the Fish & Wildlife service – has provided a motorized exemption to Class 1 and 3 eMTBs. This means that both Class 1 and Class 3 bikes are treated just like “analog” mountain bikes and are permitted on any MTB trails on BLM, NPS, and FWS land. Class 2 eMTBs are department-specific; they are considered motorized vehicles by the NPS but not directly addressed in the BLM regulations. These rules are the most consistently supported by MTB advocacy organizations. While there is very little DOI-managed land in Vermont, land managed by the Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) typically adheres to this standard, and there are ACE areas in Vermont that either currently have or are involved in future planning for mountain bike trails (e.g. Ball Mountain Lake)
• The US Forest Service has recently determined that it considers all classes of eMTBs as motorized vehicles. This means that eMTBs are prohibited on any trails that do not permit motorized traffic. Should a local land manager wish to add eMTB access, they must go through a public process and environmental impact analysis. Furthermore, opening of a trail to eMTB officially changes the designation of that trail to “motorized”, which while Class-specific, does have implications for funding and maintenance. These regulations hold true for all trails in the Green Mountain National Forest.
• The Vermont Department of Forests, Parks & Recreation has just released a new proposed policy for electric bike use on State-owned lands. You can read the official press release here and the full policy here.  In terms of trails, the policy proposes that Class 1, pedal-assist electric mountain bikes (eMTBs) are to be permitted on all trails on state land that have been officially designated for mountain bike use. As noted above, there are three important restrictions that define Class-1 eMTBs: 1) they are pedal-assist only and cannot have a throttle, 2) the e-assist cuts out at 20 mph, and 3) the motor power cannot exceed 750 watts. Any e-MTB that does not meet all three of these criteria is not a Class 1 eMTB and will not be allowed on MTB trails on state land. Currently, no eMTBs – including Class 1 pedal-assist bikes, are permitted on non-motorized trails on state land.

So what does this mean for eMTB users in Vermont? Private landowners may decide on a more closed approach, like the USFS, a fully open position, or something more neutral like the DOI. It is essential to check with the local trail stewardship organization – most commonly a VMBA Chapter – or land manager to understand what rules are in place for a given trail system.

According to the Americans with Disabilities Act, all ‘public accommodations’ – which explicitly include natural surface trails managed for public access on public and private land – are by default open to any individual who uses a pedal-assist bike to overcome a disability and who can provide “credible assurance” that they require the device for mobility. A simple verbal confirmation counts as such assurance and no additional evidence is required, nor is the trail manager legally permitted to ask questions about the nature of the individual’s disability. Trail managers can, however, conduct an assessment for safety purposes and limit use of Other Power-Driven Mobility Devices (OPDMDs), which includes pedal-assist bikes to specific trails. Without such an assessment – which must be based on safety concerns alone – the trail manager is prohibited from preventing a person who provides credible assurance from riding a pedal-assist bike on their trails. Lastly, if observed behavior of the user contradicts their claim as to their need for an OPDMD, the trail manager is allowed to deny a user’s verbal claim of credible assurance.

Off-road wheelchairs (colloquially “adaptive bikes”) enable individuals with mobility disabilities to access the great outdoors, hiking, and biking.   These devices must meet specific parameters; are made specifically for someone with a disability, are 36″ wide or less and have non-damaging tread. Adaptive bikes also typically include electric-assist motors, (imagine biking with your arms!) making them battery-powered wheelchairs. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act, federal and state lands open to the public for pedestrian use – including wilderness – should be aware of the definition of a wheelchair and that increased technology means there are many versions of these devices available for people with disabilities, greatly increasing their recreation opportunity. Any powered mobility device that may be used by but are not primarily designed for such individuals for the purpose of locomotion are considered Other Powered-Driven Mobility Devices (OPDMDs). Think Segways, golf carts, ATVs, motorized shopping carts, etc… Unlike wheelchairs, OPDMD access to trails can be restricted. What does this mean for trail users in Vermont?  Three or four-wheeled adaptive trikes, battery-powered or not, are legally allowed anywhere pedestrians can travel.

So why is there so much debate over allowing eMTBs to access existing mountain bike trails anyway? Class 1 eMTBs look and act very similar to analog mountain bikes, with the motor power and assist speed limits well below what a fit adult rider can achieve. That said, there are four areas that often raise concerns in terms of allowing eMTB access:

• Environmental. Initially, the presence of a motor on these bicycles led to concerns that eMTBs would produce more trail tread damage, as it is well-established that off-road motorcycles and ATVs remove substantially more material from trail surfaces than hiking or mountain biking (Natural Resource Impacts of Mountain Biking – American Trails). A recent study, however, showed that the tread impacts of eMTBs are essentially the same as analog bikes, and that behavioral choices – e.g. riding on muddy trails – can have a much more profound impact. Nonetheless, if eMTBs enable riders to cover more distance and ride longer, the overall impact of a rider on a given day could be greater.
• Social. Class 1 eMTBs allow a rider to travel at higher speeds (limited to 20 mph) uphill, which could result in them encountering and overtaking more trail users along a given stretch of uphill or flat trail. This could lead to more disruptions and an overall less positive experience for other users – including analog mountain bikers. It is worth noting that the electric assist for Class 1 eMTBs cuts out at 20mph, these bikes do not travel significantly faster than analog bikes downhill, and that the uphill speeds achieved by eMTBs are similar to those of very fit riders on analog bikes, as demonstrated in a recent environmental assessment in the Tahoe National Forest.
• Safety. The pedal assist capability of eMTBs can allow users to pedal deeper into trail systems than they would on an analog mountain bike, and travel at higher rates of speed on certain – predominately uphill – sections of trail. The related concern is that those on eMTBs could either find themselves in over their head – should a battery die, for instance, or lead to speed-related crashes over certain terrain. 
• Legal. If and when trails are opened to eMTBs, their designation can change from ‘non-motorized’ to ‘motorized’, as is presently the case for trails on USFS land. This reclassification can have significant implications for funding and regulations, and affect whether specific trails are eligible for certain grant programs, trail manager liability, etc…

The overarching concern is what these impacts could mean for access – if eMTBs are permitted on a trail and significant additional negative impacts to the environment, user experience, and/or safety were to occur, the potential for the trail to be closed to all mountain biking is real.

As noted above, the per-mile impacts of Class 1 eMTBs have been shown to be very similar to analog mountain bikes. It remains unknown to what extent eMTBs extend the riding distances of specific users, though we generally think of more time on the trail as a good thing. The Social and Safety impacts of eMTBs, however, remain unclear. Beyond conflicting anecdotal evidence suggesting these are both negligible and significant, we lack good evidence showing that eMTBs affect other users and/or lead to more accidents than conventional MTBs. Recent studies at trail systems in Vermont led by VMBA Chapters (Fellowship of the Wheel and Stowe Trails Partnership) showed no measurable social or safety impacts of eMTBs at specific trail networks, and showed that community perceptions were generally neutral.

Over time, sentiment toward eMTBs has steadily become more positive as more and more riders have had an opportunity to either test or purchase a pedal-assist bike. In the most recent Vermont-focused survey, just over half of respondents had ridden an eMTB previously and over three-quarters had seen an eMTB out on the trail. In terms of access, 70% felt eMTBs should be allowed on most or all trails, approximately 20% felt that eMTBs should be limited to specialty-designed trails, and just under 10% felt they should not be allowed on any MTB trails. These results align closely with VMBA’s most recent member survey, fielded in 2024.

As an organization, VMBA recognizes the ability for Class 1, pedal-assist eMTBs to expand trail access to individuals who might not have otherwise been able to enjoy it. We also believe responsible off-road riding is primarily a function of education and attitude, not equipment, and that Class 1 pedal-assist bikes can be used responsibly on many trails just as ‘analog’ bikes can be used irresponsibly. Lastly, we fully respect the policies land owners and managers have in place and strongly encourage our members to understand and adhere to these rules as eMTB use and awareness continue to grow. Currently, a majority of trails our Chapters manage on private land are open to pedal-assist bikes.

Generally, VMBA believes that Class 1 pedal-assist bikes should be allowed on most mountain bike trails, recognizing both their impacts and the realities of attempting to regulate use of bikes out on the trail. We also strongly support restricting the use of all eMTBs other than Class 1 on mountain bike trails, with the exception of adaptive bikes designed for individuals with physical disabilities. Class 2, Class 3, and unclassified e-bikes can have significantly greater impacts on trail tread and user safety. We do support the use of all Classes of e-bikes on roads and forest, just not on the trails we steward. 

Lastly, we are concerned with the ongoing development of out-of-class eMTBs that feature more powerful motors with peak power outputs that exceed 750W. We believe this limitation is important and ensures pedal-assist bikes permitted on trails do not creep towards their motorized counterparts. We strongly encourage bike manufacturers to focus on building lighter, longer-range, and more user-friendly eMTBs and not engaging in a useless competition for more power that threatens access for all bikes.

VMBA has an eMTB feature built into our Plan Your Ride platform, which provides users a simple means to hone in on the Vermont trails that officially support pedal-assist eMTB use. Trail forks and other trail mapping applications have also built in an eMTB filter, though we would strongly encourage eMTB enthusiasts to confirm the rules before they visit a trail system.  Specific guidance for trails in Vermont:

• The proposed policy from Vermont Department of Forests, Parks & Recreation would allow for Class 1, pedal-assist eMTB use on all MTB trails on state land. Currently, eMTBs are not permitted on these trails.
• Kingdom Trails Association recently updated their policy to allow Class 1, pedal-assist eMTBs throughout their network, with the exception of where specifically excluded by specific landowners as shown on their trail map.
• The USFS only allows eMTB use on motorized trails, or trails that have gone through a dedicated designation process

The Vermont Department of Forests, Parks & Recreation has proposed an updated for electric bike use on State-owned lands for public comment until November 28th, 2025. You can read the official press release here and the full policy here.  In terms of trails, the policy states that Class 1, pedal-assist electric mountain bikes are to be permitted on all trails on state land that have been officially designated for mountain bike use. There are three important restrictions that define Class-1 eMTBs: 1) they are pedal-assist only and cannot have a throttle, 2) the e-assist cuts out at 20 mph, and 3) the peak motor power cannot exceed 750 watts. Any e-MTB that does not meet all three of these criteria is not a Class 1 eMTB and will not be allowed on MTB trails on state land.

• Vermont S.66 (Act 40), A bill relating to electric bicycles: https://legislature.vermont.gov/bill/status/2022/S.66 
• Kingdom Trails Association eMTB policy: https://www.kingdomtrails.org/ride-with-gratitude#PoliciesandFAQs 
• USFS Guidance on eMTB use in National Forests: https://www.fs.usda.gov/news/releases/usda-forest-service-issues-guidance-manage-future-e-bike-use-national-forests-and
• IMBA eMTB FAQs https://www.imba.com/eMTB-questions
• BLM – e-Bikes on Public Lands https://www.blm.gov/programs/recreation/e-bikes
• NEMBA’s position statement on eMTBs https://www.nemba.org/emtb
• Trails Are Common Ground e-MTB Hub and Quick Start Guide for e-Mountain Bikers

An electric unicycle (EUC) is a self-balancing personal transporter with a single wheel. The rider straddles the wheel, controls speed by leaning forwards or backwards, and steers by twisting or tilting the unit side to side, using accelerometers and gyroscopes for balance. A Onewheel is similar, the wide hub-motor wheel sits beneath a deck and the rider stands sideways like a snowboard or skateboard. The Onewheel GT tops out around 750W and 20 mph, putting it at least in the same power neighborhood as a legal pedal-assist e-bike, whereas higher-end EUCs can exceed 2,000W+ and 30+ mph — firmly in e-moto territory by any measure. While a Onewheel can plausibly be treated like an e-skateboard, many high-powered EUCs are not ambiguous at all — their specs put them well beyond any reasonable e-bike or personal mobility device classification. Neither of these devices is allowed on non-motorized trails on state or federal land. However, trail access on private and municipal land is up to the landowner or municipality. If you use or are considering using one of these devices, please check with your local VMBA Chapter or trail manager to discuss possible use.